Note: This article contains spoilers regarding the core plot of the movie.
To end the Trojan War, which had lasted for ten years, Odysseus devised a stratagem using a giant wooden horse. It was left on the beach as an offering to the goddess Athena and a sign of peace. The Trojans found it, dragged it inside their citadel, and placed it before the temple of Athena.
The time bomb disguised as an offering detonated on the night of the new moon. Odysseus and his men jumped out from inside the horse and successfully opened the city gates from within. Thus, the Greek coalition army waiting outside poured in en masse. Led by Agamemnon, the soldiers committed destruction and slaughter to the fullest extent. Thus, Troy, which had prospered through trade, perished.
Odysseus's stratagem betrayed both human hearts and divine hearts, bringing about an irreversible effect that made it impossible to return to the previous world. Burning Troy was like setting fire to the entire world.
After the fall of Troy, people along the Greek coast began to fear the arrival of groups called the "Sea Peoples." They were recognized as those who broke the "Laws of Zeus," disrupted trade, and brought about a Dark Age. However, it was Odysseus and his men themselves.
The civilization built upon the "Laws of Zeus" collapsed, and the arrival of the Dark Age was inevitable. The legend of the Trojan War was passed down to later generations through songs in an era without writing.
In the movie The Odyssey, unique interpretations not found in classical works are presented throughout.
After watching the film, I was deeply impressed by how the story was summarized. On the other hand, the interpretation above is by no means far-fetched. This is because keywords such as the "Sea Peoples," the collapse of civilization, and the Dark Age have actually been closely associated with the legend of the Trojan War. The key linking these elements is the situation in the Eastern Mediterranean around 1200 BCE. That is, the period positioned as the end of the Bronze Age.
The impetus for writing this article was a comment from a close friend who watched the movie: "I've heard of each keyword, but I don't understand how they are related." From my intuition, I felt that many others might share this sentiment.
Of course, even without grasping each keyword, this movie should be enjoyable as a major work. However, understanding the actual historical context of the Late Bronze Age, which serves as the film's setting, allows one to savor Christopher Nolan's interpretation more deeply. Therefore, in this article, I will explain matters related to the core of the movie The Odyssey based on archaeological and historical research findings.
1. The Eastern Mediterranean in the Late Bronze Age
First, let's confirm the era set as the backdrop of the movie. As detailed later, if the Trojan War or a similar battle occurred, it is believed to have taken place near the end of the Bronze Age.
This period is technically called the Late Bronze Age. In the Eastern Mediterranean, including the Aegean Sea, the period roughly from 1600–1200 BCE (about 400 years) is referred to as the Late Bronze Age. This is the final phase of the Bronze Age, following the Early and Middle Bronze Ages. The era following the Late Bronze Age is known as the Iron Age.
During the Late Bronze Age, unprecedentedly large powers emerged around the Eastern Mediterranean. The "Mycenaean Civilization" flourished centered on mainland Greece, and the Hittite Kingdom rose in Anatolia. In Mesopotamia, kingdoms such as Mitanni, Assyria, and the Kassite Dynasty coexisted, while the Egyptian New Kingdom prospered in northeastern Africa. It can be said to be one of the most vibrant periods in the history of the ancient Eastern Mediterranean.
For example, in Egypt, well-known kings such as Queen Hatshepsut, Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, and Ramesses II reigned during this time. The famous war between Egypt and the Hittites, known as the "Battle of Kadesh," also took place during the Late Bronze Age.
At that time, cross-border exchanges were vigorous throughout the Eastern Mediterranean, and long-distance trade was actively conducted. A wide variety of goods were traded. Products such as textiles, diverse containers, and jewelry, as well as liquids like wine and perfumes, were exchanged internationally. Additionally, raw materials were important. For instance, the vast amounts of copper produced on Cyprus and the enormous gold mined south of Egypt were strongly sought after by neighboring states that could not obtain these resources domestically. Investigations of the so-called "Uluburun Shipwreck," which sank off southern Turkey in the late 14th century BCE, revealed numerous cargo items symbolizing Eastern Mediterranean trade at the time.
Correspondence exchanged between rulers of great powers has also been discovered. Particularly famous are the clay tablet documents found in Egypt, commonly known as the Amarna Letters. These materials show that close relationships were constructed between royal houses through gift exchanges and political marriages.
It was not only great powers that flourished in the Eastern Mediterranean at the time. For example, the Kingdom of Ugarit, located on the northern coast of present-day Syria, is known to have prospered by establishing its position as a trading hub. Also, as discussed later, Troy, the stage of the Trojan War, is suggested to have been a kingdom that prospered through trade during the Late Bronze Age.
2. Troy and Its Ruins
Various theories have been proposed since ancient times regarding the specific location of Troy. Currently, the site generally identified as Troy is the Troy ruins located in the Troad region on the Aegean coast of northwestern Turkey.
The Troy ruins consist of a citadel built on a hill called Hisarlik and a settlement spreading across the gentle slope to its south. Excavations have revealed traces of activity spanning approximately 4,000 years. Of these, Layer VI and Layer VIIa, corresponding to the Late Bronze Age, are crucial when considering the Trojan War.
In reality, no decisive evidence proving this site is Troy has been found. However, since there are no other strong rival candidates, it remains the most likely candidate at present.
Heinrich Schliemann, well known for his book Troy and Its Remains, began serious excavations at the Troy ruins. His investigations started in 1870. Among his discoveries, the luxurious artifacts known as "Priam's Treasure" are particularly famous. Although not depicted in the movie, Priam was the King of Troy when the Trojan War broke out. However, it is now known that these artifacts date back to the Early Bronze Age, far earlier than the supposed time of the Trojan War.
Incidentally, Schliemann also conducted excavations in Greece. He achieved spectacular discoveries at Mycenae, the most important site for discussing the "Mycenaean Civilization." In the cemetery located inside the citadel, dazzling golden products were found, one of which, commonly known as the "Mask of Agamemnon," has literally become the face of the "Mycenaean Civilization."
(Note: There is absolutely no evidence that this mask belonged to Agamemnon.)
Excavations continued intermittently at the Troy ruins after Schliemann's investigations. At the end of the 20th century, surveys led by German archaeologist Manfred Korfmann yielded significant results. Research on this site continues to progress actively today.
3. Was Troy a Trading Nation?
There has been intense debate regarding what kind of place the Troy ruins were during the Late Bronze Age. Was it a large city, or conversely, something too small to be called a city? The key point was whether a settlement existed outside the citadel, specifically on the south side of Hisarlik Hill.
It has now been determined that a settlement did exist outside the citadel, revealing that the ancient form of the Troy ruins included a large expanse encompassing the hilltop citadel. Its scale was outstanding within the Troad region at the time.
The Troy ruins are located at the junction of the Black Sea direction, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea. Therefore, some researchers hypothesize that the state existing here during the Late Bronze Age prospered by controlling trade routes. Furthermore, if the Trojan War or a model for it occurred, it is sometimes pointed out that conflict over trade routes was the cause (though no evidence supports this theory).
By the way, Homer's epic describes the trigger for the Trojan War as Helen, wife of Menelaus, King of Sparta, being abducted by the Prince of Troy. This setting is followed in the movie The Odyssey. However, the movie also includes fictionalized elements. It posits that Agamemnon, Menelaus's brother, had the true aim of seizing the trade routes controlled by Troy. The content spoken by Odysseus in Christopher Nolan's film largely reflects scholarly theories regarding the ancient appearance of the Troy ruins mentioned above.
However, there are limitations to evaluating this site. First, only a portion of the area outside the citadel has been excavated, and due to poor preservation of deposits, the specific appearance of the Late Bronze Age settlement remains unclear. Additionally, remains of the Late Bronze Age inside the citadel are poorly preserved. This is because traces of the Late Bronze Age in the central area are thought to have been lost when the Temple of Athena was built there in later periods. While it is clear that the Troy ruins are an important site, it must be noted that interpretations regarding its reality have limits.
4. The Trojan War and the Arrival of the "Dark Age"
When did the fall of Troy described in the epics occur? Authors of classical works already mentioned dates. According to Herodotus's chronology, it was around 1250 BCE. Eratosthenes calculated it as 1184 BCE (or 1183 BCE).
Many people recognize the Trojan War as a real war, but currently, no evidence supporting the existence of a war as depicted in the epics has been found. However, the possibility of a model battle cannot be denied. If such a battle occurred, when was it? While there are various theories, many researchers believe it was near the end of the Late Bronze Age. Facts revealed by excavations include traces of battle at Layer VIIa of the Troy ruins around 1200 BCE (this interpretation is also complex).
Around this time, significant changes were occurring throughout the Eastern Mediterranean. In Greece, "palaces," which characterized the "Mycenaean Civilization" centers, were destroyed. In Anatolia, the Hittite Kingdom suddenly disappeared in the early 12th century BCE. The Kingdom of Ugarit, which flourished in the northern Levant, also perished around this time. Traces of damage around 1200 BCE have been found at various other sites.
These series of events in the Eastern Mediterranean are often called the "Bronze Age Collapse" or "Collapse around 1200 BCE." And 1200 BCE is conventionally used as the boundary of the Bronze Age. Thus, the recognition that "Collapse around 1200 BCE" = "End of the Bronze Age" has become widespread.
The changes around 1200 BCE were not limited to destructive damage. Notably relevant to this article is the fact that Linear B, previously used for recording in Greece, ceased to be used.
The period of several centuries following the 12th century BCE in Greece was traditionally called the "Dark Age." This is an important keyword mentioned several times in the movie. The term derives from the extreme scarcity of written records compared to the Late Bronze Age. However, with advances in excavation and research, light has begun to shine on this era. Consequently, the name "Dark Age" is less frequently used today, replaced by the term "Early Iron Age."
5. Invasion of the "Sea Peoples"
Why did significant changes occur in the Eastern Mediterranean around 1200 BCE? For a long time, the cause was considered to be groups called the "Sea Peoples." The "Sea Peoples" is a collective term for foreign forces associated with the sea recorded in Egyptian documents around 1200 BCE. Their origins are often unclear, but they are frequently described as coming from the Aegean direction.
Records of large-scale battles between Egypt and the "Sea Peoples" survive. Specifically, they are dated to the reigns of Pharaoh Merneptah of the 19th Dynasty and Pharaoh Ramesses III of the 20th Dynasty of the Egyptian New Kingdom. Particularly, structures on the west bank of Luxor in southern Egypt preserve records of fierce battles between Egypt and the "Sea Peoples" in text and imagery.
Especially influential on later generations is the inscription recording events in the 8th year of Ramesses III's reign. Based on this inscription, the "Sea Peoples" came to be positioned as a group that swept through the Eastern Mediterranean, ravaging various places. In other words, they were regarded as the entities that brought about the end of the Bronze Age.
In the movie The Odyssey, the names "sea peoples" or "peoples from the sea" were mentioned as foreign forces feared by people along the Greek coast. In the dubbed version, it was unified as "Sea Peoples" (presumably). This is clearly a name conscious of the aforementioned "Sea Peoples."
In reality, it has become understood that the changes in the Eastern Mediterranean around 1200 BCE were not necessarily all due to the influence of the "Sea Peoples." Re-examining archaeological evidence reveals that their activities have been overestimated. Factors for social change at the time now include climate change, earthquakes, and internal strife, meaning it cannot be explained solely by simple factors like invasion by foreign forces.
Regarding changes in Greece, factors like earthquakes and internal strife are often emphasized. Contrary to the movie's narrative, it should be noted that the influence of foreign forces like the "Sea Peoples" is not heavily prioritized.
For details on the "Sea Peoples," I have previously summarized them in four parts in another article. If interested, please see → https://x.com/011235Moto/status/2027732235252863410?s=20
6. Odysseus and the "Sea Peoples"
Christopher Nolan presents a storyline where Odysseus and his men, who destroyed Troy and sought to return home, were themselves the "Sea Peoples." Indeed, scholars sometimes point out a connection between Odysseus and the "Sea Peoples."
Although omitted in the movie, in The Odyssey, there is a passage where Odysseus, having returned to Ithaca, disguises himself and tells a fictional biography. The following episodes are narrated:
- After the Trojan War ended, he gathered his men and launched an expedition from Crete to Egypt with nine ships. - Upon arriving in Egypt, his men disobeyed orders and engaged in plunder and kidnapping. - In response, the Egyptians counterattacked, causing many of his men to die, while survivors were taken prisoner. - He himself was spared by the King of Egypt and spent seven years in Egypt accumulating wealth.
Some voices suggest that this fictional episode told by Odysseus may be based on historical facts. That is, it might reflect an actual event where people from the Aegean once campaigned against Egypt and plundered. This plunder is linked to the activities of the "Sea Peoples" around 1200 BCE. Whether the content of Homer's epics and records of the "Sea Peoples" are actually related is uncertain, but it is an interesting connection.
7. The Eastern Mediterranean After the 12th Century BCE
As mentioned earlier, significant changes occurred in the Eastern Mediterranean around 1200 BCE. In Greece, palaces collapsed, and Linear B fell out of use. It would take several hundred years before written records reappeared substantially.
However, not everything around the Eastern Mediterranean collapsed during this time. It has become clear that places unaffected by damage, or even those that developed further, existed. People lived resiliently amidst great changes. Recently, research focusing on aspects other than "collapse" has become active.
The same applies to Greece. Although palaces collapsed, some cultural elements characterizing the "Mycenaean Civilization" remained for a while. The pottery used as the eye-catch image for this article is precisely Mycenaean pottery made after the palace collapses.
Finally, a note on periodization. While the Bronze Age is said to have ended around 1200 BCE, this is merely a conventional division. It is certain that the series of changes in the Eastern Mediterranean world around 1200 BCE marked a major turning point in history, but iron tools actually surpassed bronze in usage some time later.
(By the way, the widespread notion that iron production technology monopolized by the Hittites spread due to their collapse needs revision. For the relationship between the Hittites and iron, refer to The Hittite Empire: The Reality of the 'Iron Kingdom' by Hidetoshi Tsukamoto, PHP Institute. https://www.php.co.jp/books/detail.php?isbn=978-4-569-85457-1
Homer's epics are generally believed to have taken their current form in the 8th century BCE. The content depicted is not a faithful reflection of the Aegean in the Late Bronze Age but is thought to contain many elements from the Iron Age.
However, it is also true that elements dating back to the Late Bronze Age are scattered throughout. While it is difficult to give a definitive answer on whether the Trojan War or similar battles actually occurred, it seems certain that memories of the Late Bronze Age were partially passed down orally for hundreds of years without reliance on writing.
Above, briefly, I have focused on keywords appearing in the movie The Odyssey and summarized them while touching on archaeological and historical research findings. This masterpiece, destined to remain in film history, can be said to be a brilliant work skillfully combining Homer's epics and research findings on the end of the Late Bronze Age by Christopher Nolan.
There is still much to write, but I will leave it here for this time.
If opportunities arise in the future, I hope to publish more.
Thank you for reading until the end.
[Promotion] NHK Culture Course "Archaeology of the Trojan War: Homer's Epics and the Eastern Mediterranean in the Late Bronze Age" (Held October 3rd)
